Street-Level Bureaucrats

PMR — pp. 1-29 2026-07-30 Original Understanding red tape perceptions of street-level bureaucrats: a multilevel cross-country analysis Qianhui Li Abstract Despite extensive research on red tape’s negative consequences, its antecedents remain underexplored. Building on the psychological process model, this article investigates antecedents of street-level bureaucrats’ red tape perceptions across the micro, meso, and macro levels. Using a dataset of 90,480 teachers across 44 countries, results show that antecedents across all levels relate to teachers’ red tape perceptions. Specifically, red tape perceptions are weaker among teachers having a growth mindset, working in schools with a wide span of control, and living in low uncertainty avoidance and individualism cultures. Across these antecedents, the cultural contexts are particularly important.